Guide-compatible large-electrode catheter for renal nerve ablation with reduced arterial injury

ABSTRACT

A first catheter is dimensioned for deployment within a renal artery. A second catheter has a shaft with an outer diameter smaller than an inner diameter of the first catheter&#39;s open lumen. A gap is formed between the shaft and the first catheter when the second catheter is situated within the first catheter. The gap facilitates transport of a fluid, such as imaging contrast media, along the first catheter. An electrode arrangement at the distal end of the shaft is configured to deliver ablative energy to perivascular renal nerves, and has an outer diameter about the same size as the inner diameter of the first catheter such that a fit therebetween substantially blocks fluid flow within the gap yet provides for relative movement between the electrode arrangement and the luminal wall. A conductor extends between the proximal and distal ends of the shaft and is coupled to electrode arrangement.

RELATED PATENT DOCUMENTS

This application claims the benefit of Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/434,137 filed Jan. 19, 2011, to which priority is claimed pursuant to 35 U.S.C. §119(e) and which is hereby incorporated herein by reference.

SUMMARY

Embodiments of the disclosure are directed to apparatuses and methods for ablating target tissue of the body, such as perivascular renal nerves. Embodiments are directed to an intravascular apparatus which includes a first catheter dimensioned for deployment within a renal artery of a patient and has an open lumen with an inner diameter, a proximal end, a distal end, and a length sufficient to access the renal artery relative to a percutaneous access location. A second catheter is dimensioned for deployment within the first catheter. The second catheter includes a shaft having a proximal end, a distal end, and a length sufficient to access the renal artery relative to the percutaneous access location. The shaft has an outer diameter that is smaller than the inner diameter of the first catheter's open lumen so as to form a gap between the shaft and a luminal wall of the first catheter when the second catheter is situated within the open lumen of the first catheter. The gap facilitates transport of a fluid, such as imaging contrast media, along a length of the first catheter. An electrode arrangement is provided at the distal end of the shaft and configured to deliver energy sufficient to ablate perivascular renal nerve tissue. The electrode arrangement has an outer diameter about the same size as the inner diameter of the open lumen of the first catheter such that a fit between the electrode arrangement and the luminal wall of the first catheter substantially blocks fluid flow within the gap yet provides for relative movement between the electrode arrangement and the luminal wall. A conductor extends between the proximal and distal ends of the shaft and is coupled to electrode arrangement.

According to some embodiments, an intravascular apparatus includes a first catheter dimensioned for deployment within a renal artery of a patient and has an open lumen with an inner diameter, a proximal end, a distal end, and a length sufficient to access the renal artery relative to a percutaneous access location. A second catheter is dimensioned for deployment within the first catheter. The second catheter includes a shaft having a proximal end, a distal end, and a length sufficient to access the renal artery relative to the percutaneous access location. The shaft has an outer diameter that is smaller than the inner diameter of the first catheter's open lumen so as to form a gap between the shaft and a luminal wall of the first catheter when the second catheter is situated within the open lumen of the first catheter. The gap facilitates transport of a fluid along a length of the first catheter. An electrode arrangement is provided at the distal end of the shaft and configured to deliver energy sufficient to ablate perivascular renal nerve tissue. The electrode arrangement includes an electrode core having an outer diameter that is smaller than the inner diameter of the first catheter's open lumen, and an attachable electrode sleeve configured for attachment to the electrode core. The electrode sleeve has an outer diameter sufficient to block a distal opening of the first catheter when in abutment with a distal terminus of the first catheter. A conductor extends between the proximal and distal ends of the shaft and is coupled to electrode arrangement.

In accordance with other embodiments, a method is implemented using either of the apparatuses described above, and involves positioning the second catheter within the first catheter such that the electrode arrangement is situated proximate a distal tip of the first catheter. The method also involves advancing the first catheter and the second catheter positioned therein through vasculature to a location within the renal artery, and advancing the second catheter relative to the first catheter so that the electrode arrangement passes beyond the distal tip of the first catheter. The method further involves introducing an imaging contrast media into the gap of sufficient volume to flow from the distal tip of the first catheter and into arterial blood within the renal artery. The electrode arrangement may be positioned at one or more desired locations within the renal artery facilitated by the injected contract media and an external imaging system. When properly positioned, RF energy can be supplied to the electrode arrangement to ablate perivascular renal nerves. The electrode arrangement may be positioned to other renal artery locations assisted by imaging provided by additional contract media injection and the external imaging system. This method may be repeated for the patient's contralateral renal artery.

According to another embodiment, an intravascular apparatus includes a first catheter dimensioned for deployment within a renal artery of a patient and having an open lumen with an inner diameter, a proximal end, a distal end, and a length sufficient to access the renal artery relative to a percutaneous access location. A second catheter is dimensioned for deployment within the first catheter and includes a shaft having a proximal end, a distal end, and a length sufficient to access the renal artery relative to the percutaneous access location. The shaft has an outer diameter that is smaller than the inner diameter of the first catheter's open lumen so as to form a gap between the shaft and a luminal wall of the first catheter when the second catheter is situated within the open lumen of the first catheter, the gap facilitating transport of a fluid along a length of the first catheter. An electrode arrangement is provided at the distal end of the shaft and configured to deliver energy sufficient to ablate perivascular renal nerve tissue. The electrode arrangement has an outer diameter greater than the inner diameter of the open lumen of the first catheter such that a captured fit between at least a proximal portion of the electrode arrangement and the luminal wall of the first catheter substantially blocks fluid flow within the gap. A conductor extends between the proximal and distal ends of the shaft and coupled to electrode arrangement.

These and other features can be understood in view of the following detailed discussion and the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is an illustration of a right kidney and renal vasculature including a renal artery branching laterally from the abdominal aorta;

FIGS. 2A and 2B illustrate sympathetic innervation of the renal artery;

FIG. 3A illustrates various tissue layers of the wall of the renal artery;

FIGS. 3B and 3C illustrate a portion of a renal nerve;

FIGS. 4A and 4B show an ablation catheter in accordance with various embodiments;

FIG. 5 shows an ablation catheter in accordance with various embodiments;

FIGS. 6 and 7 show an ablation catheter in accordance with various embodiments; and

FIG. 8 shows a system for ablating renal nerves using an ablation catheter in accordance with various embodiments.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Embodiments of the disclosure are directed to apparatuses and methods for ablating target tissue of the body from within a vessel. Embodiments of the disclosure are directed to apparatuses and methods for ablating perivascular renal nerves from within the renal artery for the treatment of hypertension. Embodiments of the disclosure are directed to a guide-compatible large-electrode catheter arrangement for reduced arterial injury during a renal nerve ablation procedure.

Various embodiments of the disclosure are directed to apparatuses and methods for renal denervation for treating hypertension. Hypertension is a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure is elevated. Persistent hypertension is a significant risk factor associated with a variety of adverse medical conditions, including heart attacks, heart failure, arterial aneurysms, and strokes. Persistent hypertension is a leading cause of chronic renal failure. Hyperactivity of the sympathetic nervous system serving the kidneys is associated with hypertension and its progression. Deactivation of nerves in the kidneys via renal denervation can reduce blood pressure, and may be a viable treatment option for many patients with hypertension who do not respond to conventional drugs.

The kidneys are instrumental in a number of body processes, including blood filtration, regulation of fluid balance, blood pressure control, electrolyte balance, and hormone production. One primary function of the kidneys is to remove toxins, mineral salts, and water from the blood to form urine. The kidneys receive about 20-25% of cardiac output through the renal arteries that branch left and right from the abdominal aorta, entering each kidney at the concave surface of the kidneys, the renal hilum.

Blood flows into the kidneys through the renal artery and the afferent arteriole, entering the filtration portion of the kidney, the renal corpuscle. The renal corpuscle is composed of the glomerulus, a thicket of capillaries, surrounded by a fluid-filled, cup-like sac called Bowman's capsule. Solutes in the blood are filtered through the very thin capillary walls of the glomerulus due to the pressure gradient that exists between the blood in the capillaries and the fluid in the Bowman's capsule. The pressure gradient is controlled by the contraction or dilation of the arterioles. After filtration occurs, the filtered blood moves through the efferent arteriole and the peritubular capillaries, converging in the interlobular veins, and finally exiting the kidney through the renal vein.

Particles and fluid filtered from the blood move from the Bowman's capsule through a number of tubules to a collecting duct. Urine is formed in the collecting duct and then exits through the ureter and bladder. The tubules are surrounded by the peritubular capillaries (containing the filtered blood). As the filtrate moves through the tubules and toward the collecting duct, nutrients, water, and electrolytes, such as sodium and chloride, are reabsorbed into the blood.

The kidneys are innervated by the renal plexus which emanates primarily from the aorticorenal ganglion. Renal ganglia are formed by the nerves of the renal plexus as the nerves follow along the course of the renal artery and into the kidney. The renal nerves are part of the autonomic nervous system which includes sympathetic and parasympathetic components. The sympathetic nervous system is known to be the system that provides the bodies “fight or flight” response, whereas the parasympathetic nervous system provides the “rest and digest” response. Stimulation of sympathetic nerve activity triggers the sympathetic response which causes the kidneys to increase production of hormones that increase vasoconstriction and fluid retention. This process is referred to as the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone-system (RAAS) response to increased renal sympathetic nerve activity.

In response to a reduction in blood volume, the kidneys secrete renin, which stimulates the production of angiotensin. Angiotensin causes blood vessels to constrict, resulting in increased blood pressure, and also stimulates the secretion of the hormone aldosterone from the adrenal cortex. Aldosterone causes the tubules of the kidneys to increase the reabsorption of sodium and water, which increases the volume of fluid in the body and blood pressure.

Congestive heart failure (CHF) is a condition that has been linked to kidney function. CHF occurs when the heart is unable to pump blood effectively throughout the body. When blood flow drops, renal function degrades because of insufficient perfusion of the blood within the renal corpuscles. The decreased blood flow to the kidneys triggers an increase in sympathetic nervous system activity (i.e., the RAAS becomes too active) that causes the kidneys to secrete hormones that increase fluid retention and vasorestriction. Fluid retention and vasorestriction in turn increases the peripheral resistance of the circulatory system, placing an even greater load on the heart, which diminishes blood flow further. If the deterioration in cardiac and renal functioning continues, eventually the body becomes overwhelmed, and an episode of heart failure decompensation occurs, often leading to hospitalization of the patient.

FIG. 1 is an illustration of a right kidney 10 and renal vasculature including a renal artery 12 branching laterally from the abdominal aorta 20. In FIG. 1, only the right kidney 10 is shown for purposes of simplicity of explanation, but reference will be made herein to both right and left kidneys and associated renal vasculature and nervous system structures, all of which are contemplated within the context of embodiments of the disclosure. The renal artery 12 is purposefully shown to be disproportionately larger than the right kidney 10 and abdominal aorta 20 in order to facilitate discussion of various features and embodiments of the present disclosure.

The right and left kidneys are supplied with blood from the right and left renal arteries that branch from respective right and left lateral surfaces of the abdominal aorta 20. Each of the right and left renal arteries is directed across the crus of the diaphragm, so as to form nearly a right angle with the abdominal aorta 20. The right and left renal arteries extend generally from the abdominal aorta 20 to respective renal sinuses proximate the hilum 17 of the kidneys, and branch into segmental arteries and then interlobular arteries within the kidney 10. The interlobular arteries radiate outward, penetrating the renal capsule and extending through the renal columns between the renal pyramids. Typically, the kidneys receive about 20% of total cardiac output which, for normal persons, represents about 1200 mL of blood flow through the kidneys per minute.

The primary function of the kidneys is to maintain water and electrolyte balance for the body by controlling the production and concentration of urine. In producing urine, the kidneys excrete wastes such as urea and ammonium. The kidneys also control reabsorption of glucose and amino acids, and are important in the production of hormones including vitamin D, renin and erythropoietin.

An important secondary function of the kidneys is to control metabolic homeostasis of the body. Controlling hemostatic functions include regulating electrolytes, acid-base balance, and blood pressure. For example, the kidneys are responsible for regulating blood volume and pressure by adjusting volume of water lost in the urine and releasing erythropoietin and renin, for example. The kidneys also regulate plasma ion concentrations (e.g., sodium, potassium, chloride ions, and calcium ion levels) by controlling the quantities lost in the urine and the synthesis of calcitrol. Other hemostatic functions controlled by the kidneys include stabilizing blood pH by controlling loss of hydrogen and bicarbonate ions in the urine, conserving valuable nutrients by preventing their excretion, and assisting the liver with detoxification.

Also shown in FIG. 1 is the right suprarenal gland 11, commonly referred to as the right adrenal gland. The suprarenal gland 11 is a star-shaped endocrine gland that rests on top of the kidney 10. The primary function of the suprarenal glands (left and right) is to regulate the stress response of the body through the synthesis of corticosteroids and catecholamines, including cortisol and adrenaline (epinephrine), respectively. Encompassing the kidneys 10, suprarenal glands 11, renal vessels 12, and adjacent perirenal fat is the renal fascia, e.g., Gerota's fascia, (not shown), which is a fascial pouch derived from extraperitoneal connective tissue.

The autonomic nervous system of the body controls involuntary actions of the smooth muscles in blood vessels, the digestive system, heart, and glands. The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic nervous system and the parasympathetic nervous system. In general terms, the parasympathetic nervous system prepares the body for rest by lowering heart rate, lowering blood pressure, and stimulating digestion. The sympathetic nervous system effectuates the body's fight-or-flight response by increasing heart rate, increasing blood pressure, and increasing metabolism.

In the autonomic nervous system, fibers originating from the central nervous system and extending to the various ganglia are referred to as preganglionic fibers, while those extending from the ganglia to the effector organ are referred to as postganglionic fibers. Activation of the sympathetic nervous system is effected through the release of adrenaline (epinephrine) and to a lesser extent norepinephrine from the suprarenal glands 11. This release of adrenaline is triggered by the neurotransmitter acetylcholine released from preganglionic sympathetic nerves.

The kidneys and ureters (not shown) are innervated by the renal nerves 14. FIGS. 1 and 2A-2B illustrate sympathetic innervation of the renal vasculature, primarily innervation of the renal artery 12. The primary functions of sympathetic innervation of the renal vasculature include regulation of renal blood flow and pressure, stimulation of renin release, and direct stimulation of water and sodium ion reabsorption.

Most of the nerves innervating the renal vasculature are sympathetic postganglionic fibers arising from the superior mesenteric ganglion 26. The renal nerves 14 extend generally axially along the renal arteries 12, enter the kidneys 10 at the hilum 17, follow the branches of the renal arteries 12 within the kidney 10, and extend to individual nephrons. Other renal ganglia, such as the renal ganglia 24, superior mesenteric ganglion 26, the left and right aorticorenal ganglia 22, and celiac ganglia 28 also innervate the renal vasculature. The celiac ganglion 28 is joined by the greater thoracic splanchnic nerve (greater TSN). The aorticorenal ganglia 26 is joined by the lesser thoracic splanchnic nerve (lesser TSN) and innervates the greater part of the renal plexus.

Sympathetic signals to the kidney 10 are communicated via innervated renal vasculature that originates primarily at spinal segments T10-T12 and Ll. Parasympathetic signals originate primarily at spinal segments S2-S4 and from the medulla oblongata of the lower brain. Sympathetic nerve traffic travels through the sympathetic trunk ganglia, where some may synapse, while others synapse at the aorticorenal ganglion 22 (via the lesser thoracic splanchnic nerve, i.e., lesser TSN) and the renal ganglion 24 (via the least thoracic splanchnic nerve, i.e., least TSN). The postsynaptic sympathetic signals then travel along nerves 14 of the renal artery 12 to the kidney 10. Presynaptic parasympathetic signals travel to sites near the kidney 10 before they synapse on or near the kidney 10.

With particular reference to FIG. 2A, the renal artery 12, as with most arteries and arterioles, has an inner wall 15 a and an outer wall 15 b, and is lined with smooth muscle 34 that controls the diameter of the renal artery lumen 13. Smooth muscle, in general, is an involuntary non-striated muscle found within the media layer of large and small arteries and veins, as well as various organs. The glomeruli of the kidneys, for example, contain a smooth muscle-like cell called the mesangial cell. Smooth muscle is fundamentally different from skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle in terms of structure, function, excitation-contraction coupling, and mechanism of contraction.

Smooth muscle cells can be stimulated to contract or relax by the autonomic nervous system, but can also react on stimuli from neighboring cells and in response to hormones and blood borne electrolytes and agents (e.g., vasodilators or vasoconstrictors). Specialized smooth muscle cells within the afferent arteriole of the juxtaglomerular apparatus of kidney 10, for example, produces renin which activates the angiotension II system.

The renal nerves 14 innervate the smooth muscle 34 of the renal artery wall 15 and extend lengthwise in a generally axial or longitudinal manner along the renal artery wall 15. The smooth muscle 34 surrounds the renal artery circumferentially, and extends lengthwise in a direction generally transverse to the longitudinal orientation of the renal nerves 14, as is depicted in FIG. 2B.

The smooth muscle 34 of the renal artery 12 is under involuntary control of the autonomic nervous system. An increase in sympathetic activity, for example, tends to contract the smooth muscle 34, which reduces the diameter of the renal artery lumen 13 and decreases blood perfusion. A decrease in sympathetic activity tends to cause the smooth muscle 34 to relax, resulting in vessel dilation and an increase in the renal artery lumen diameter and blood perfusion. Conversely, increased parasympathetic activity tends to relax the smooth muscle 34, while decreased parasympathetic activity tends to cause smooth muscle contraction.

FIG. 3A shows a segment of a longitudinal cross-section through a renal artery, and illustrates various tissue layers of the wall 15 of the renal artery 12. The innermost layer of the renal artery 12 is the endothelium 30, which is the innermost layer of the intima 32 and is supported by an internal elastic membrane. The endothelium 30 is a single layer of cells that contacts the blood flowing though the vessel lumen 13. Endothelium cells are typically polygonal, oval, or fusiform, and have very distinct round or oval nuclei. Cells of the endothelium 30 are involved in several vascular functions, including control of blood pressure by way of vasoconstriction and vasodilation, blood clotting, and acting as a barrier layer between contents within the lumen 13 and surrounding tissue, such as the membrane of the intima 32 separating the intima 32 from the media 34, and the adventitia 36. The membrane or maceration of the intima 32 is a fine, transparent, colorless structure which is highly elastic, and commonly has a longitudinal corrugated pattern.

Adjacent the intima 32 is the media 33, which is the middle layer of the renal artery 12. The media is made up of smooth muscle 34 and elastic tissue. The media 33 can be readily identified by its color and by the transverse arrangement of its fibers. More particularly, the media 33 consists principally of bundles of smooth muscle fibers 34 arranged in a thin plate-like manner or lamellae and disposed circularly around the arterial wall 15. The outermost layer of the renal artery wall 15 is the adventitia 36, which is made up of connective tissue. The adventitia 36 includes fibroblast cells 38 that play an important role in wound healing.

A perivascular region 37 is shown adjacent and peripheral to the adventitia 36 of the renal artery wall 15. A renal nerve 14 is shown proximate the adventitia 36 and passing through a portion of the perivascular region 37. The renal nerve 14 is shown extending substantially longitudinally along the outer wall 15 of the renal artery 12. The main trunk of the renal nerves 14 generally lies in or on the adventitia 36 of the renal artery 12, often passing through the perivascular region 37, with certain branches coursing into the media 33 to enervate the renal artery smooth muscle 34.

Embodiments of the disclosure may be implemented to provide varying degrees of denervation therapy to innervated renal vasculature. For example, embodiments of the disclosure may provide for control of the extent and relative permanency of renal nerve impulse transmission interruption achieved by denervation therapy delivered using a treatment apparatus of the disclosure. The extent and relative permanency of renal nerve injury may be tailored to achieve a desired reduction in sympathetic nerve activity (including a partial or complete block) and to achieve a desired degree of permanency (including temporary or irreversible injury).

Returning to FIGS. 3B and 3C, the portion of the renal nerve 14 shown in FIGS. 3B and 3C includes bundles 14 a of nerve fibers 14 b each comprising axons or dendrites that originate or terminate on cell bodies or neurons located in ganglia or on the spinal cord, or in the brain. Supporting tissue structures 14 c of the nerve 14 include the endoneurium (surrounding nerve axon fibers), perineurium (surrounds fiber groups to form a fascicle), and epineurium (binds fascicles into nerves), which serve to separate and support nerve fibers 14 b and bundles 14 a. In particular, the endoneurium, also referred to as the endoneurium tube or tubule, is a layer of delicate connective tissue that encloses the myelin sheath of a nerve fiber 14 b within a fasciculus.

Major components of a neuron include the soma, which is the central part of the neuron that includes the nucleus, cellular extensions called dendrites, and axons, which are cable-like projections that carry nerve signals. The axon terminal contains synapses, which are specialized structures where neurotransmitter chemicals are released in order to communicate with target tissues. The axons of many neurons of the peripheral nervous system are sheathed in myelin, which is formed by a type of glial cell known as Schwann cells. The myelinating Schwann cells are wrapped around the axon, leaving the axolemma relatively uncovered at regularly spaced nodes, called nodes of Ranvier. Myelination of axons enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called saltation.

In some embodiments, a treatment apparatus of the disclosure may be implemented to deliver denervation therapy that causes transient and reversible injury to renal nerve fibers 14 b. In other embodiments, a treatment apparatus of the disclosure may be implemented to deliver denervation therapy that causes more severe injury to renal nerve fibers 14 b, which may be reversible if the therapy is terminated in a timely manner. In preferred embodiments, a treatment apparatus of the disclosure may be implemented to deliver denervation therapy that causes severe and irreversible injury to renal nerve fibers 14 b, resulting in permanent cessation of renal sympathetic nerve activity. For example, a treatment apparatus may be implemented to deliver a denervation therapy that disrupts nerve fiber morphology to a degree sufficient to physically separate the endoneurium tube of the nerve fiber 14 b, which can prevent regeneration and re-innervation processes.

By way of example, and in accordance with Seddon's classification as is known in the art, a treatment apparatus of the disclosure may be implemented to deliver a denervation therapy that interrupts conduction of nerve impulses along the renal nerve fibers 14 b by imparting damage to the renal nerve fibers 14 b consistent with neruapraxia. Neurapraxia describes nerve damage in which there is no disruption of the nerve fiber 14 b or its sheath. In this case, there is an interruption in conduction of the nerve impulse down the nerve fiber, with recovery taking place within hours to months without true regeneration, as Wallerian degeneration does not occur. Wallerian degeneration refers to a process in which the part of the axon separated from the neuron's cell nucleus degenerates. This process is also known as anterograde degeneration. Neurapraxia is the mildest form of nerve injury that may be imparted to renal nerve fibers 14 b by use of a treatment apparatus according to embodiments of the disclosure.

A treatment apparatus may be implemented to interrupt conduction of nerve impulses along the renal nerve fibers 14 b by imparting damage to the renal nerve fibers consistent with axonotmesis. Axonotmesis involves loss of the relative continuity of the axon of a nerve fiber and its covering of myelin, but preservation of the connective tissue framework of the nerve fiber. In this case, the encapsulating support tissue 14 c of the nerve fiber 14 b is preserved. Because axonal continuity is lost, Wallerian degeneration occurs. Recovery from axonotmesis occurs only through regeneration of the axons, a process requiring time on the order of several weeks or months. Electrically, the nerve fiber 14 b shows rapid and complete degeneration. Regeneration and re-innervation may occur as long as the endoneural tubes are intact.

A treatment apparatus may be implemented to interrupt conduction of nerve impulses along the renal nerve fibers 14 b by imparting damage to the renal nerve fibers 14 b consistent with neurotmesis. Neurotmesis, according to Seddon's classification, is the most serious nerve injury in the scheme. In this type of injury, both the nerve fiber 14 b and the nerve sheath are disrupted. While partial recovery may occur, complete recovery is not possible. Neurotmesis involves loss of continuity of the axon and the encapsulating connective tissue 14 c, resulting in a complete loss of autonomic function, in the case of renal nerve fibers 14 b. If the nerve fiber 14 b has been completely divided, axonal regeneration causes a neuroma to form in the proximal stump.

A more stratified classification of neurotmesis nerve damage may be found by reference to the Sunderland System as is known in the art. The Sunderland System defines five degrees of nerve damage, the first two of which correspond closely with neurapraxia and axonotmesis of Seddon's classification. The latter three Sunderland System classifications describe different levels of neurotmesis nerve damage.

The first and second degrees of nerve injury in the Sunderland system are analogous to Seddon's neurapraxia and axonotmesis, respectively. Third degree nerve injury, according to the Sunderland System, involves disruption of the endoneurium, with the epineurium and perineurium remaining intact. Recovery may range from poor to complete depending on the degree of intrafascicular fibrosis. A fourth degree nerve injury involves interruption of all neural and supporting elements, with the epineurium remaining intact. The nerve is usually enlarged. Fifth degree nerve injury involves complete transection of the nerve fiber 14 b with loss of continuity.

Radiofrequency (RF) catheters have been used to ablate perivascular renal nerves for treatment of hypertension. Conventional approaches have difficulty in producing a sufficiently high tissue temperature to reliably ablate the perivascular renal nerves, yet low enough temperatures at the renal artery wall to minimize arterial injury. Conventional approaches also have difficulty with size, with smaller electrodes producing high current density at the electrode contact with the artery wall and reduced heat transfer that negatively impacts electrode cooling by blood flowing through the artery. Larger electrodes can produce lower current density at the electrode contact with the artery wall, and improved heat transfer for better cooling by heat transfer to the flowing blood, but requiring larger guide catheters and sheaths to accommodate the larger electrodes and provide for imaging contrast media injection.

Various conventional approaches, for example, use a 4 French (Fr.) RF ablation catheter introduced through a 6 Fr. guide catheter to allow for contrast media injection through the guide catheter. The 4 Fr. electrode can cause higher current density and poorer cooling than desired. In addition, the small 4 Fr. electrode can more easily be pressed into the artery wall, partially embedding the electrode, and covering more of the electrode surface so that cooling by heat transfer to the blood is further reduced.

Embodiments of the disclosure are directed to apparatuses and methods for RF ablation of renal nerves for treatment of hypertension. Various embodiments are directed to ablation apparatuses that include a larger electrode to reduce electrode temperature and artery injury while still using a standard sized sheath, such as a 6 Fr. sheath. According to some embodiments, an RF ablation catheter includes an electrode with an outer diameter of approximately 5 Fr., and a shaft with an outer diameter approximately 4 Fr. The electrode is sized to closely fit through a 6 Fr. guide catheter, with no clearance for contrast media injection. The shaft of the RF ablation catheter is smaller than the electrode, so that when the electrode is advanced out the end of the guide catheter, there is clearance for contrast media injection between the guide catheter and the RF ablation catheter shaft.

This configuration provides a larger electrode than conventional approaches, so that current density at the artery wall contact surface is reduced, and heat transfer from the artery wall contact area to the flowing blood is also increased. The reduced current density and improved heat transfer provide cooler electrode and artery wall temperatures, reducing arterial wall injury while maintaining deeper tissue heating for perivascular nerve ablation. In contrast to embodiments of the disclosure, use of conventional small 4 Fr. electrodes results in high electrode temperatures due to smaller contact area, less effective heat transfer through the electrode, and less blood contact area for cooling.

Even the seemingly small increase in electrode diameter can result in a significant improvement. Depending on the exact geometry, the electrode-artery contact area can increase approximately 25%, reducing local tissue impedance and Joule heating by at least that amount. The blood-contact area for heat transfer to the blood for electrode cooling can increase by approximately 25% (or somewhat more), and heat conduction from the hot side to the cool side of the electrode also improves. Further, the larger electrode is less embedded into the artery wall during use, further increasing the exposed area for heat transfer to the blood for cooling. This results in even cooler artery temperatures at the electrode, while actually increasing heating deeper into the target tissue. Embodiments of the present disclosure provide for more efficient target tissue heating which can be used to further reduce the power, duty cycle, or electrode temperature in a synergistic manner.

In various embodiments, the catheter is fabricated with a guide catheter or other external sheath over the shaft of the RF ablation catheter, so that the guide catheter can slide along and rotate on the RF ablation catheter, but is captured on the RF ablation catheter. For introduction, the RF ablation catheter can be withdrawn into the guide catheter until the electrode abuts the end of the guide catheter. After the tip is positioned at the renal artery ostium, the RF ablation catheter can be advanced into the renal artery to position the electrode for therapy. This configuration provides an electrode with substantially larger size than the prior approach, so that current density at the artery wall contact surface is reduced, and heat transfer from the artery wall contact area to the flowing blood is increased. The reduced current density and improved heat transfer provide cooler electrode and artery wall temperatures, reducing arterial wall injury while maintaining deeper tissue heating for perivascular nerve ablation.

Various embodiments of the disclosure are directed to apparatuses and methods for RF ablation of perivascular renal nerves that employ an RF ablation catheter having an electrode core which can pass through a guide catheter of a desired size, such as a 6 Fr. guide catheter, for example. An external electrode sleeve can be affixed to the outside of the RF electrode, and becomes thermally and electrically coupled to the electrode. The guide catheter or similar device is chosen by the user for the particular anatomy or style preference, and the RF ablation catheter can be inserted into the guide catheter until the electrode extends out the distal end of the guide catheter. The user may then secure the external sleeve to the electrode, and the assembly can be introduced and positioned, using the guide catheter to aid positioning and to provide for local contrast media injection.

A sensor or circuit link may be provided so that when the external sleeve is properly secured to the electrode, an indication is given to the user. For example, the external sleeve can provide a closed circuit which can be sensed and displayed on the control unit, and/or operation of the RF ablation function can require proper securing of the sleeve to the electrode. An interlocking ledge, for example, can provide for secured attachment of the sleeve to the electrode core. A sensor can be located at or near the interlocking ledge to detect when the electrode core is properly advanced into, and secured on, the electrode sleeve.

According to various embodiments, threads, barbs, latches or other mechanical components can be provided for securement of the sleeve to the electrode core. Coupling element(s), such as springs or malleable components, can be used to enhance electrical and/or thermal coupling of the sleeve to the electrode core, or a slight press fit can be used for optimal conduction. In other embodiments, the external sleeve can be removable by the user so that a different guide catheter can be chosen, such as to match the anatomy of the contralateral renal artery.

A special tool can be provided for removal of the sleeve, so that the disengagement mechanism can be configured to prevent unintended release. The disengagement and removal of the sleeve can require two independent actuations, for example, or access to a shielded or protected feature that could not be inadvertently actuated. The removal tool can provide for atraumatic grasping of the sleeve so that the fine surface finish is not marred.

Turning now to FIGS. 4A and 4B, there is illustrated an ablation catheter 100 in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 4A shows the ablation catheter 100 in a configuration prior to full deployment, while FIG. 4B shows the ablation catheter 100 fully deployed. The ablation catheter 100 includes a first catheter 102, which may be configured as a sheath or a guiding catheter, for example. The first catheter 102 is dimensioned for deployment within a target vessel, such as a renal artery of a patient, and includes has an open lumen with an inner diameter. The first catheter 102 has a length sufficient to access the target vessel relative to a percutaneous access location. The ablation catheter 100 further includes a second catheter 110 having a length sufficient to access the target vessel, such as the renal artery, relative to a percutaneous access location. A shaft 111 of the second catheter 110 has an outer diameter that is smaller than the inner diameter of the first catheter's open lumen 107, so as to form a gap 105 between the shaft 111 and a luminal wall 104 of the first catheter 102 when the second catheter 110 is situated within the open lumen 107 of the first catheter 102. The gap 105 facilitates transport of fluid, such as imaging contrast media, along a length of the first catheter 102.

An electrode arrangement 112 is provided at a distal end of the shaft 111 of the second catheter 110, and is configured to deliver energy sufficient to ablate target tissue proximate the target vessel in which the electrode arrangement 112 is deployed. In various embodiments, for example, the electrode arrangement 112 is configured to deliver energy sufficient to ablate perivascular renal nerve tissue proximate an outer wall of the renal artery within which the electrode arrangement 112 is deployed. The electrode arrangement 112 has a distal region 114 with an outer diameter about the same size as the inner diameter of the open lumen 107 of the first catheter 102, such that the fit between the electrode arrangement 112 and the luminal wall 104 of the first catheter 102 substantially blocks fluid flow within the gap 105, yet provides for relative movement (e.g., displacement and/or rotation) between the electrode arrangement and the luminal wall 104. In the context of imaging contrast media, the phrase “substantially blocks fluid flow” is intended to mean that the blockage resists (rather than prevents) fluid flow such that any contrast media that may pass the blockage is insufficient to enable good (e.g., reliable) visualization. In other contexts, the blockage may be partial or complete, depending on the nature of the fluid. A conductor extends between the proximal and distal ends of the shaft 111 of the second catheter 110, and is coupled to the electrode arrangement 112. One or more temperature and/or impedance sensors can be provided at or near the electrode arrangement 112 for sensing temperature and/or impedance at an electrode-vessel interface defined between the electrode arrangement 112 and the luminal wall 104 of a target vessel, such as a renal nerve.

FIG. 4B shows the electrode arrangement 112 extended beyond the distal opening of the first catheter 102. As can be seen in FIG. 4B, the electrode arrangement 112 no longer blocks the distal opening of the first catheter 102 when the electrode arrangement 112 is extended beyond the first catheter's distal terminus, providing for the formation of a circumferential outlet 113 for fluid flowing through the gap 105.

FIG. 5 illustrates an ablation catheter 150 in accordance with various embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 5 shows the ablation catheter 150 in a fully deployed configuration. The ablation catheter 150 includes a first catheter 152, which may be configured as a sheath or a guiding catheter. The first catheter 152 is dimensioned for deployment within a target vessel, such as a renal artery of a patient, and includes has an open lumen 163 with an inner diameter. The first catheter 152 has a length sufficient to access the target vessel relative to a percutaneous access location. The ablation catheter 150 further includes a second catheter 160 having a length sufficient to access the target vessel, such as the renal artery, relative to a percutaneous access location. A shaft 161 of the second catheter 160 has an outer diameter that is smaller than the inner diameter of the first catheter's open lumen 163, so that a gap 155 is formed between the shaft 161 and a luminal wall 154 of the first catheter 152 when the second catheter 160 is situated within the open lumen 163 of the first catheter 152. The gap 155 facilitates transport of fluid, such as imaging contrast media, along a length of the first catheter 152.

An electrode arrangement 162 is provided at a distal end of the shaft 161 of the second catheter 160, and is configured to deliver energy sufficient to ablate target tissue proximate the target vessel in which the electrode arrangement 162 is deployed. In various embodiments, for example, the electrode arrangement 162 is configured to deliver energy sufficient to ablate perivascular renal nerve tissue proximate an outer wall of the renal artery within which the electrode arrangement 162 is deployed. The electrode arrangement 162 shown in FIG. 5 may include only the electrode core 164 or may incorporate an integral conductive and/or porous coating or sleeve. The electrode arrangement 162 has an outer diameter that is larger than the inner diameter of the open lumen of the first catheter 152, as is indicated by the dashed line extending from the inner diameter of the first catheter 152 to the electrode arrangement 162.

Because the outer diameter of the electrode arrangement 162 is larger than the inner diameter of the first catheter 160, only a proximal portion of the electrode arrangement 112 is drawn into (e.g., captured by) the open lumen of the first catheter 160. For example, only the outwardly tapering proximal neck of the electrode arrangement 162 can be drawn into the open lumen of the first catheter 160, which constitutes the non-deployed configuration of the ablation catheter 150. In some embodiments, the outer diameter of the electrode arrangement 162 is approximately 6 Fr., and the shaft 161 of the first catheter 160 has an outer diameter of approximately 4 Fr. In the non-deployed configuration, the captured electrode arrangement 162 substantially blocks fluid flow within the gap 155. In some embodiments, the fit between the captured electrode arrangement 162 and the lumen wall 154 of the first catheter 152 provides for relative movement (e.g., displacement and/or rotation) between the electrode arrangement 162 and the luminal wall 154.

FIGS. 6 and 7 illustrate embodiments of an ablation catheter 200 in accordance with various embodiments. The embodiments illustrated in FIGS. 6 and 7 include a first catheter 202 and a second catheter 210 that are similar to the first and second catheters 102 and 110 shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B, and first and second catheters 152 and 160 shown in FIG. 5. The first catheter 202, which may be configured as a sheath or a guiding catheter, is dimensioned for deployment within a target vessel, such as a renal artery of a patient, and has an open lumen with an inner diameter. The first catheter 202 has a length sufficient to access the target vessel relative to a percutaneous access location. The second catheter 210 has a length sufficient to access the target vessel, such as the renal artery, relative to a percutaneous access location. A shaft 211 of the second catheter 210 has an outer diameter that is smaller than the inner diameter of the first catheter's open lumen, so as to form a gap 205 between the shaft 211 and a luminal wall 204 of the first catheter 202 when the second catheter 210 is situated within the open lumen of the first catheter 202. The gap 205 facilitates transport of fluid along a length of the first catheter 202, such as imaging contrast media.

The second catheter 210 includes an electrode arrangement 212 comprising an electrode core 214 and an attachable electrode sleeve 216. The electrode core 214 has an outer diameter that is smaller than the inner diameter of the open lumen of the first catheter 202. The electrode sleeve 216 is configured for engagement (e.g., attachment or mating) with the electrode core 214, effectively becoming part or an extension of the electrode core 214. The electrode sleeve 216 has an outer diameter sufficient to block a distal opening of the first catheter 202 when in the abutment with the distal terminus of the first catheter 202. For example, the outer diameter of the electrode sleeve 216 is preferably greater than the outer diameter of the shaft 211 of the second catheter 210. In some configurations, the outer diameter of the electrode sleeve 216 can be approximately the same as the outer diameter of the first catheter 202. In other configurations, the outer diameter of the electrode sleeve 216 can be less than or greater than that of the first catheter 202.

FIGS. 6 and 7 show the electrode arrangement 212 in a deployed configuration. In this configuration, a contrast media or other fluid (e.g., chilled saline) can be injected into the target vessel via the gap 205 and outlet 213. In a non-deployed configuration, the second catheter 210 is retracted into the open lumen of the first catheter 202 until the proximal end 217 of the electrode sleeve 216 comes into abutment with the terminus 207 of the first catheter 202. Abutment between the terminus 207 of the first catheter 202 and a proximal end 217 of the electrode sleeve 216 serves to block the outlet 213 of the gap 205. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 7, the distal terminus 207 of the first catheter 202 has a shape that conforms to that of the distal end 217 of the electrode sleeve 216, thereby enhancing sealing of the outlet 213 when the terminus 207 of the first catheter 202 is in abutment with the proximal end 217 of the electrode sleeve 216.

The distal terminus 207 of the first catheter 202 may be formed of a material the same as or different from that of the first catheter 202 or portions of the second catheter 210. In some embodiments, such as that shown in FIG. 7, the distal terminus 207 of the first catheter 202 can be formed from a material that enhances sealing between the electrode sleeve 216 and the distal opening of the first catheter 202. For example, the distal terminus 207 of the first catheter 202 can be formed from a material having a durometer lower than that of the material used to form the first catheter 202, such as a lower durometer silicone material. In other embodiments, the distal terminus 207 can be conductive, which extends the electrode core 214 to include both the electrode sleeve 216 and the distal terminus 207.

The embodiments shown in FIGS. 6 and 7 preferably include an interlocking feature 220 configured to facilitate secured engagement of the electrode sleeve 260 to the electrode core 214. An interlocking ledge 222 can be formed at a distal end of the electrode core 214, which is dimensioned to receive a tab 219 formed at the distal end of the electrodes sleeve 216. The interlocking ledge 222 and tab 219 are preferably, but need not be, circumferential features. According to some approaches, the electrode sleeve 216 is held at a fixed position, and the electrode core 214 is forcibly advanced into the open void of the electrode sleeve 216 until the interlocking feature 220 is engaged. For example, the electrode core 214 is advanced through the void of the electrode sleeve 216 until the proximal tab 219 is fully received by the interlocking ledge 222.

According to some embodiments, the electrode sleeve 216 is configured to be attached and detached respectively to and from the electrode core 214. It may be desirable to incorporate a detachment feature that requires a more complex actuation mechanism relative to the more simplistic attachment mechanism. For example, the interlocking feature 220 may be configured to require at least two independent actuations by the user before the electrode sleeve 216 can be removed from the electrode core 214. According to one configuration, a pin and slot arrangement can be incorporated into the interlocking ledge 222 and tab 219, such that a combination of rotational and axial displacements of the electrode sleeve 216 relative to the electrode core 214 is required to facilitate detachment of the electrode sleeve 216 from the electrode core 214. Other detachment actuation features and actuation mechanisms are contemplated. As previously discussed, threads, barbs, latches or other mechanical components can be incorporated into one or both of the electrode sleeve 216 and the electrode core 214 to provide for secured engagement of the electrode sleeve 216 on the electrode core 214. Various coupling element(s), such as springs or malleable components, can be used to enhance electrical and/or thermal coupling of the electrode sleeve 216 to the electrode core 214, or a slight press fit can be used for enhanced conduction.

A sensor 218 can be located at or near the interlocking feature 220 to detect when the electrode core 214 is properly secured on the electrode sleeve. The sensor 220 can be situated on either or both of the electrode sleeve 216 and the electrode core 214. In some embodiments, the sensor 218 is configured to generate a signal in response to secured engagement between the electrode sleeve 216 and the electrode core 214. In other embodiments, the sensor 218 is configured to generate a first signal in response to secured engagement between the electrode sleeve 216 and the electrode core 214, and a second signal in response to unintended disengagement between the electrode sleeve 216 and the electrode core 214. According to some embodiments, each of the electrode sleeve 216 and the electrode core 214 incorporates electrical elements that complete a closed circuit when the electrode sleeve 216 and electrode core 214 are properly aligned and secured. A break in electrical continuity, for example, can be detected in response to unintended disengagement between the electrode sleeve 216 and the electrode core 214. Other sensor arrangements are contemplated.

FIG. 8 shows a representative RF renal therapy apparatus 300 in accordance with various embodiments of the disclosure. The apparatus 300 illustrated in FIG. 8 includes external electrode activation circuitry 320 which comprises power control circuitry 322 and timing control circuitry 324. The external electrode activation circuitry 320, which includes an RF generator, is coupled to optional temperature measuring circuitry 328 and may be coupled to an optional impedance sensor 326. A catheter 301 includes a shaft 304 that incorporates a lumen arrangement 305 configured for receiving a variety of components. A sheath 303 or guiding catheter may be used to facilitate advancement of the catheter 301 into the arterial system via a percutaneous access site 306 and positioning within a target vessel, such as a renal artery 12.

The RF generator of the external electrode activation circuitry 320 may include a pad electrode 330 configured to comfortably engage the patient's back or other portion of the skin near the kidneys. Radiofrequency energy produced by the RF generator is coupled to the electrode arrangement 309 at the distal end of the catheter 301 by the conductor arrangement disposed in the lumen of the catheter's shaft 304. The electrode arrangement 309 is intended to represent any of the electrode arrangement embodiments described hereinabove.

Renal denervation therapy using the apparatus shown in FIG. 8 is typically performed using the electrode arrangement 309 positioned within the renal artery 12 and the pad electrode 330 positioned on the patient's back near the kidneys, with the RF generator operating in a monopolar mode. In this implementation, the electrode arrangement 309 is configured for operation in a unipolar configuration. The radiofrequency energy flows through the electrode arrangement 309 in accordance with a predetermined activation sequence causing ablative heating in the adjacent perivascular renal tissue of the renal artery. In general, when perivascular renal artery tissue temperatures rise above about 113° F. (50° C.), protein is permanently damaged (including those of renal nerve fibers). If heated over about 65° C., collagen denatures and tissue shrinks. If heated over about 65° C. and up to 100° C., cell walls break and oil separates from water. Above about 100° C., tissue desiccates.

According to some embodiments, the electrode activation circuitry 320 is configured to control activation and deactivation of the electrode arrangement 309 in accordance with a predetermined energy delivery protocol and in response to signals received from temperature measuring circuitry 328. Thermocouples or other sensors can be incorporated at the electrode arrangement 309 in accordance with various embodiments. The electrode activation circuitry 320 controls radiofrequency energy delivered to the conductive elements of the electrode arrangement 309 so as to maintain the current densities at a level sufficient to cause heating of the target tissue preferably to a temperature of at least about 55° C.

In some embodiments, one or more temperature sensors are situated at the electrode arrangement 309 and provide for continuous monitoring of renal artery tissue temperatures, and RF generator power is automatically adjusted so that the target temperatures are achieved and maintained. An impedance sensor arrangement 326 may be used to measure and monitor electrical impedance during RF denervation therapy, and the power and timing of the RF generator 320 may be moderated based on the impedance measurements or a combination of impedance and temperature measurements.

Marker bands 314 can be placed on one or multiple parts of the ablation catheter 301, such as at the electrode arrangement 309, to enable visualization during the procedure by an imaging system 380. Other portions of the ablation catheter and/or delivery system, such as one or more portions of the shaft, may include a marker band 314. The marker bands 314 may be solid or split bands of platinum or other radiopaque metal, for example. Radiopaque materials are understood to be materials capable of producing a relatively bright or high-contrast image on a fluoroscopy screen of the imaging system 380 or another imaging technique during a medical procedure. This relatively bright image aids the user in determining specific portions of the catheter 301, such as the tip of the catheter 301 or portions of the electrode arrangement 309. A braid and/or electrode elements of the catheter 301, according to some embodiments, can be radiopaque. Other imaging aids can be incorporated to enhance the use of other imaging modalities such as ultrasound or MRI, for example.

Various embodiments disclosed herein are generally described in the context of ablation of perivascular renal nerves for control of hypertension. It is understood, however, that embodiments of the disclosure have applicability in other contexts, such as performing ablation from within other vessels of the body, including other arteries, veins, and vasculature (e.g., cardiac and urinary vasculature and vessels), and other tissues of the body, including various organs.

It is to be understood that even though numerous characteristics of various embodiments have been set forth in the foregoing description, together with details of the structure and function of various embodiments, this detailed description is illustrative only, and changes may be made in detail, especially in matters of structure and arrangements of parts illustrated by the various embodiments to the full extent indicated by the broad general meaning of the terms in which the appended claims are expressed. 

What is claimed is:
 1. An intravascular apparatus, comprising: a first catheter dimensioned for deployment within a renal artery of a patient and having an open lumen with an inner diameter, a proximal end, a distal end, and a length sufficient to access the renal artery relative to a percutaneous access location; and a second catheter dimensioned for deployment within the first catheter and comprising: a shaft having a proximal end, a distal end, and a length sufficient to access the renal artery relative to the percutaneous access location, the shaft having an outer diameter that is smaller than the inner diameter of the first catheter's open lumen so as to form a gap between the shaft and a luminal wall of the first catheter when the second catheter is situated within the open lumen of the first catheter, the gap facilitating transport of a fluid along a length of the first catheter; a non-expandable electrode arrangement provided at the distal end of the shaft and configured to deliver energy sufficient to ablate perivascular renal nerve tissue, the electrode arrangement having an outer diameter the same size as the inner diameter of the open lumen of the first catheter such that a fit between the electrode arrangement and the luminal wall of the first catheter blocks fluid flow within the gap yet provides for relative movement between the electrode arrangement and the luminal wall; and a conductor extending between the proximal and distal ends of the shaft and coupled to electrode arrangement.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first catheter is configured as a guide catheter.
 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first catheter is a sheath.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein an outer diameter of the first catheter is 6 French (Fr).
 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the outer diameter of the electrode arrangement is 5 Fr or larger.
 6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the outer diameter of the electrode arrangement is 5 Fr.
 7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the outer diameter of the electrode arrangement is 6 French.
 8. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the fluid comprises imaging contrast media.
 9. A system comprising the apparatus of claim 1, wherein the system comprises: a high-frequency AC generator coupled to the second catheter; and a power control coupled to the generator and configured to control delivery of high-frequency AC energy to the electrode arrangement sufficient to ablate perivascular renal nerve tissue in an automatic or semi-automatic mode of operation.
 10. An intravascular apparatus, comprising: a first catheter dimensioned for deployment within a renal artery of a patient and having an open lumen with an inner diameter, a proximal end, a distal end, and a length sufficient to access the renal artery relative to a percutaneous access location; and a second catheter dimensioned for deployment within the first catheter and comprising: a shaft having a proximal end, a distal end, and a length sufficient to access the renal artery relative to the percutaneous access location, the shaft having an outer diameter that is smaller than the inner diameter of the first catheter's open lumen so as to form a gap between the shaft and a luminal wall of the first catheter when the second catheter is situated within the open lumen of the first catheter, the gap facilitating transport of a fluid along a length of the first catheter; a non-expandable electrode arrangement provided at the distal end of the shaft and configured to deliver energy sufficient to ablate perivascular renal nerve tissue, the electrode arrangement having an outer diameter the same size as or larger than the inner diameter of the open lumen of the first catheter such that a fit between the electrode arrangement and the first catheter blocks fluid flow within the gap; and a conductor extending between the proximal and distal ends of the shaft and coupled to electrode arrangement.
 11. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein the first catheter is configured as a guide catheter.
 12. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein the first catheter is a sheath.
 13. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein an outer diameter of the first catheter is 6 Fr.
 14. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein the outer diameter of the electrode arrangement is 5 Fr or larger.
 15. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein the outer diameter of the electrode arrangement is 5 Fr.
 16. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein the outer diameter of the electrode arrangement is 6 French.
 17. The apparatus of claim 10, wherein the fluid comprises imaging contrast media. 